College tuition in the United = States

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The term college tuition refers to fees that students have to = pay to=20 colleges in the United States. = Pay=20 increases in the U.S. have caused chronic controversy since shortly = after World War=20 II. Except for its military academies, the U.S. federal government = does not=20 directly support higher = education.=20 Instead it has offered programs of loans and grants, dating back to the = Mor= rill=20 Act during the U.S. Civil = War and=20 the "G.I. = Bill" programs=20 implemented after World War II. Developed = countries=20 whose national governments directly support higher = education tend=20 toward more moderate patterns of change in college tuitions and=20 different forms of controversy.

1 Causes=20
- 1.1 Bubble=20 Theory
- 1.2 Cost = shifting and=20 Privatization
- 1.3 Student=20 Loan
- 1.4 Lack of = consumer=20 protection
- 1.5 Additional=20 factors
- 1.6 Recommendations
2 Historical=20 trends
3 Recent=20 trends
4 Disproportional = inflation=20 of college costs
5 Economic and = social=20 concerns=20
- 5.1 Economic=20 concerns
- 5.2 Social=20 concerns
6 Student loan=20 debt
7 See = also
8 References and=20 notes
9 External=20 links

Causes

Bubble = Theory

Main article: Higher = education=20 bubble

=20

Study comparing college revenue per = student by=20 tuition and state funding in 2008 dollars.^[=
1]

The view that higher education is a bubble is controversial. Most = economists=20 do not think the returns to college education are falling.^[2]=20 In a financial bubble, assets like houses are sometimes purchased with a = view to=20 reselling at a higher price, and this can produce rapidly escalating = prices as=20 people speculate on future prices. An end to the spiral can provoke = abrupt=20 selling of the assets, resulting in an abrupt collapse in price = =E2=80=94 the bursting=20 of the bubble. Because the asset acquired through college attendance = =E2=80=94 a higher=20 education =E2=80=94 cannot be sold (only rented through wages), there is = no similar=20 mechanism that would cause an abrupt collapse in the value of existing = degrees.=20 For this reason, many people^[who?]=20 find this analogy misleading. However, one rebuttal to the claims that a = bubble=20 analogy is misleading is the observation that the 'bursting' of the = bubble are=20 the negative effects on students who incur student debt, for example, as = the=20 American Association of State Colleges and Universities reports that = "Students=20 are deeper in debt today than ever before...The trend of heavy debt = burdens=20 threatens to limit access to higher education, particularly for = low-income and=20 first-generation students, who tend to carry the heaviest debt burden. = Federal=20 student aid policy has steadily put resources into student loan programs = rather=20 than need-based grants (see graph), a trend that straps future = generations with=20 high debt burdens. Even students who receive federal grant aid are = finding it=20 more difficult to pay for college."^[3]

Cost = shifting and=20 Privatization

See also: Privatization&nbs= p;and Private=20 university

One proposed cause of increased tuition is the reduction of state and = federal=20 appropriations to colleges thus making them shift the cost = over to=20 students in the form of higher tuition.^[<=
/SPAN>4][5]=20 This has mostly applied to public universities which in 2011 for the = first time=20 have taken in more in tuition than in state funding^[5]=20 and had the greatest increases in tuition^[=
1].=20 Implied from this shift away from public funding to tuition is = privatization,=20 although the New York Times reports such claims are exaggerated.[5]

Student Loan

Another proposed cause of increased tuition is U.S. Congress' = occasional=20 raising of the 'loan limits' of student loans, in which the increased=20 availability of students to take out deeper loans sends a message to = colleges=20 and universities that students can 'afford more,' and then, in response, = institutions of higher education raise tuition to match, leaving the = student=20 back where he began, but deeper in debt. Therefore, if the students are = able to=20 afford a much higher amount than the free market would = otherwise=20 support for students without the ability to take out a loan, then the = tuition is=20 'bid up' to the new, higher, level that the student can now afford with = loan=20 subsidies.^[6]=20 One rebuttal to that theory is the fact that even in years when loan = limits have=20 not risen, tuition has still continued to climb.[7][8]=20 However, that may not disprove this proposed cause: It may simply mean = that=20 other factors besides 'loan limit' increases played a part in the = increases in=20 tuition.

Lack of = consumer=20 protection

A third, novel, theory claims that the recent change in federal law = removing=20 all standard consumer protections (truth in lending, bankruptcy = proceedings,=20 statutes of limits, etc.) strips students of the ability to declare = bankruptcy,=20 and, in response, the lenders and colleges know that students, = defenseless to=20 declare bankruptcy, are on the hook for any amount that they borrow = -including=20 late fees and interest (which can be capitalized and increase the = principal loan=20 amount), thus removing the incentive to provide the student with a = reasonable=20 loan that he/she can pay back.^[7][8]=20 Under this theory, it would be more profitable for the lender if the = student=20 defaulted (due to the increases in the amount of the loan after fees and = interest are capitalized), and thus there is no free market = pressure-type=20 motive for the lender or the college to help the student avoid default. = This is=20 especially true because the government, if it is the lender or guarantor = of the=20 loan, has the ability to garnish the borrower's wages, tax return, and = Social=20 Security Disability income without a court order.[9]=20 Some have called the Federal Government 'predatory' for making loans = which will=20 have such a high default rate, since the default rate for Student Loans = is=20 projected to reach 46.3% of all federal loans disbursed to students at=20 for-profit colleges in 2008.^{[10]<=
/SPAN>}[11]=

Additional = factors

Other factors^[<=
/SPAN>4]=20 that have been implicated in increased tuition include the = following:

The practice of 'tuition discounting,' in which a college awards = financial aid from its own funds. This assistance to low-income = students by=20 the college or university means that 'paying' students have to 'make = up' for=20 the difference: Increased tuition. This factor becomes more = pronounced in=20 modern times, since more students nowadays are going to college, = which means=20 that there are less State and Federal grant funds available per=20 student.

According to Mark Kantrowitz, a recognised expert in this area, = "The=20 most significant contributor to tuition increases at public and = private=20 colleges is the cost of instruction. It accounts for a quarter of = the=20 tuition increase at public colleges and a third of the increase at = private=20 colleges."

Kantriwitz' study also found that "Complying with the increasing = number=20 of regulations =E2=80=93 in particular, with the reporting = requirements =E2=80=93 adds to=20 college costs," thus contributing to a rise in tuition to pay for = these=20 additional costs.

Recommendations

Based on the available data, a number of recommendations to = address rising=20 tuition have been advanced by both experts and consumer and students' = rights=20 advocates:

Colleges and universities should look for ways to reduce costs = of=20 instructor and administrator expenditures (e.g., cut salaries and/or = reduce=20 staff).^[12][13]

State and Federal governments should increase appropriations, = grants,=20 and contracts to colleges and universities.^[12][14]= [15]=

Federal, state, and local governments should reduce the = regulatory=20 burden on colleges and universities.^[<=
/SPAN>4]

The Federal Government should enact partial or total loan = forgiveness=20 for students who have taken out student loans.[13][16]= [17]= [18]=

Federal Lawmakers should return standard consumer protections = (truth in=20 lending, bankruptcy proceedings, statutes of limitations, etc.) to = Student=20 Loans which were removed by the passage of the Bankruptcy Reform Act = of 1994=20 (P.L. 103-394, enacted October 22, 1994), which amended the FFELP = (Federal=20 Family Education Loan Program).^[13][19]= [20]=

Cut lender subsidies, decrease student reliance on loans to pay = for=20 college, and otherwise reduce the 'loan limits' to limit the amount = a=20 student may borrow.^[13][21]= [22]=

Regulatory or legislative action to lower or freeze the tuition, = such as=20 Canada's tuition = freeze model,=20 should be enacted by federal lawmakers:^[23]=

More research should be done: Recognised financial expert, Mark=20 Kantrowitz, issued the following recommendations[<= /SPAN>4]:

"The National Center for Education Statistics should increase = the=20 frequency of the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study to = annual, from=20 triennial, in order to permit more timely tracking of the factors=20 affecting tuition rate increases. Likewise, NCES (National Center = for=20 Education Statistics) should take steps to improve the efficiency = of the=20 data collection and publication for the Digest of Education = Statistics, so=20 that all tables will include more recent data. The most recent = data listed=20 in some tables is five years old."

"The US Department of Education should study the relationship = between=20 increases in average EFC (Expected Family Contribution) figures = and=20 average tuition rates. In addition, it would be worthwhile to = examine how=20 historical average EFC figures have changed relative to family = income when=20 measured on a current and constant dollar basis for each income=20 quartile."

Lastly, in order to offset the costs of tuition, some colleges = help=20 students in job searches and job placement after graduation.[24]=

Historical = trends

The first chart compares standard undergraduate = annual=20 tuition and fees charged by major U.S. public, U.S. private and Canadian public = 4-year college,=20 showing both current U.S. = dollars during=20 the years from 1940 to 2000 and U.S. dollars adjusted to the year 2000 = by using=20 the U.S. Consumer = Price=20 Index series.^[25]=[26]= [27]=

Tuition at the University = of=20 Toronto tracked close to inflation rates during the entire = period.[28]= =20 The University of = Iowa=20 had rapid increases in tuition during the 1950s and then tracked close = to=20 inflation rates since that time.^[29]==20 The Massachusetts=20 Institute of Technology (MIT), among the most expensive of the = private U.S.=20 educational institutions throughout the 20th century,^[30]==20 had continual large tuition increases, dipping slightly below inflation = rates=20 only during the World War II years.^[31]=[32]=

Over the 60-year period charted, the inflation-adjusted, long term, = annual=20 increases in tuition at these institutions were 0.4 percent for the = University=20 of Toronto, 1.4 percent for the University of Iowa, and 2.1 percent for = MIT.[33]= =20 Other institutions in the same categories differ in details but not in = general=20 patterns.^[34]==20 The results of the trends are that over the 60 years shown, adjusted for = inflation, the tuition at the University of Iowa increased by a factor = of 2.3=20 and that at MIT by a factor of 3.6, while tuition at the University of = Toronto=20 rose only about 30 percent.^[35]=

Recent = trends

This chart compares average undergraduate tuition and fees charged by = about=20 600 U.S. public and 1,350 U.S. private, non-profit 4-year colleges = during years=20 from 1993 through 2004.,^[36]==20 both unadjusted and adjusted to the year 2004 by using the U.S. Consumer = Price=20 Index series. Data were not available for years 1994, 1995 and = 1999.

During the 11-year period charted, both public and private, nonprofit = colleges regularly posted tuition increases well above inflation rates. = Peak=20 increases for private colleges were in 1997, after the U.S. economy = began=20 booming growth. Peak increases for public colleges were in 2003, after = state=20 budgets supporting most of them were crimped by a sharp economic = recession. Over=20 this period, annual, inflation-adjusted tuition increases at public = colleges=20 averaged 4.0 percent, while those at private, non-profit colleges = averaged 3.5=20 percent. Cumulative results over this period are average public tuitions = growing=20 53 percent above inflation, and average private, nonprofit tuitions = growing 47=20 percent above inflation. As of 2004, private, nonprofit colleges cost on = average=20 3.3 times as much as public colleges attended by residents of their = states.

Disproportional inflation of college = costs

"Disproportional inflation" refers to inflation in a particular = economic=20 sector that is substantially greater than inflation in general costs of = living.=20 This kind of inflation for medical costs in recent decades is well = known.=20 However, that of college tuition and fees exceeds that of medical = costs.

The following graph shows the inflation rates of general costs of = living (for=20 urban consumers; the CPI-U), medical costs (medical costs component of = the consumer = price=20 index (CPI)), and college and tuition and fees for private four-year = colleges (from College Board = data) from=20 1978 to 2008. All rates are computed relative to 1978. ^[37]=

Cost of living increased roughly 3.25-fold during this time; medical = costs=20 inflated roughly 6-fold; but college tuition and fees inflation = approached=20 10-fold. Another way to say this is that whereas medical costs inflated = at twice=20 the rate of cost-of-living, college tuition and fees inflated at four = times the=20 rate of cost-of-living inflation. Thus, even after controlling for the = effects=20 of general inflation, 2008 college tuition and fees posed three times = the burden=20 as in 1978.

According to "College Board", the average tuition price for a 4-year = public=20 college in 2008-2009 is now $6,585 compared to 2004 where the price was = slightly=20 above $5,000. The average price of in-state tuition vs out-of-state = tuition for=20 2008-2009 was $6,585 for a in-state 4-year college to $17,452 for = out-of-state 4=20 year college (collegeboard.com).

Economic = and social=20 concerns

Economic = concerns

Long-term price trends make higher education an especially = inflationary=20 sector of the U.S. economy, with tuition increases in recent years = sometimes=20 outpacing even explosive health care = sectors.[38]= =20 These trends are sources of continuing controversy in the United States = over=20 costs of higher education^[39]==20 and their potential for limiting the country's achievements in = democracy,=20 fairness and social justice.^[40]=

Today, some companies offer tuition reimbursement to students.

Social = concerns

Besides economic effects of rapidly increasing debt burdens placed on = students, social ramifications are felt. One of these is the increase in = suicides directly attributable to the stress related to distressed and = defaulted=20 student loans.^[41]=[42]= [43]= [44]=

Student loan = debt

A closely related issue is the alarming increase in student borrowing = to=20 finance college education and resulting student loan = debt. In the=20 2007-2008 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), the median=20 cumulative debt among graduating 4-year undergraduate students was = $19,999; one=20 quarter borrowed $30,526 or more, and one tenth borrowed $44,668 or = more.[45]= =20 In fact, for the first time in the history of America, 'Student Loan' = debt has=20 surpassed 'Credit Card' debt.^[9]

Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence that students are still = getting=20 good value for their investment in an education.^{[citation=20
needed]} Since the mid-1980s, education has played a = large=20 part in potential wages,^{[citation=20
needed]} with bachelor's degree holders taking home = an=20 average of 38% more than those with only a high school diploma.[citation=20 needed] While college-educated workers' wages have=20 increased over the past two decades, those with only a high school = education=20 have seen decreases in annual salaries in the same time period.[46]=

The U.S. spends more on education than most other developed = countries, and=20 the U.S. has a disproportionate share of the top-ranked universities in = the=20 world.^[47]=

References and=20 notes

^ ^a<=
/B>=20 ^b<=
/B>=20 "Trends in College Spending 1998-2008" Delta Cost=20 Project.

^=20 Claudia Goldin, Lawrence F. Katz (2008). = The=20 Race Between Education and Technology. The Belknap Press of = Harvard=20 University Press.

^=20 Hillman, Nick (2006). "Student Debt=20 Burden, Volume 3, Number 8, August 2006". American Association of = State=20 Colleges and Universities. http://www.aascu.org/media/pm/pdf/v3n8.pdf.

^ ^a=20 ^b=20 ^c=20 ^d=20 Kantrowitz, Mark (2002). "Research Report: Causes of faster-than-inflation = increases in=20 college tuition". FinAid. http://www.finaid.org/calculators/tuitionanalysis.pdf<= /SPAN>.=

^ ^a=20 ^b=20 ^c=20 "Public Universities Relying More on Tuition Than State=20 Money", The New York Times

^=20 "Federal Student=20 Loans: Patterns in Tuition, Enrollment, and Federal Stafford Loan = Borrowing Up=20 to the 2007-08 Loan Limit Increase". gao.gov. 2011.=20 http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-11-470R.=

^ ^a=20 ^b=20 "Student Loans in Bankruptcy". lawyers.com. = 2011. http://bankruptcy.lawyers.com/consumer-bankruptcy/Student-= Loans-In-Bankruptcy.html.

^ ^a=20 ^b=20 "Student Loan Bankruptcy Options". money-zine.com. = 2011. http://www.money-zine.com/Financial-Planning/College-Loan/= Student-Loan-Bankruptcy-Options.

^ ^a=20 ^b=20 Dvorkin, Howard (2010). "Student Loan Debt Surpasses Credit Card Debt-What to = Do?".=20 foxbusiness.com. http://www.foxbusiness.com/personal-finance/2010/09/20/stu= dent-loan-debt-surpasses-credit-card-debt.

^=20 "46 Percent Of Federal Loans Paid To For-Profit = Institutions Will=20 Go Into Default". huffingtonpost.com/AOL.com. 2010.=20 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/12/23/46-percent-defaul= t-rate-o_n_800283.html.

^=20 Turner, Katrina (2010). "Subject: Default Rates for Cohort Years = 2004-2008".=20 ifap.ed.gov. http://ifap.ed.gov/eannouncements/122010CDRlifetimerate201= 0.html.

^ ^=
a=20 ^=
b=20 Kantrowitz, Mark (2002). "Research Report: Causes of faster-than-inflation = increases in=20 college tuition". FinAid. http://www.finaid.org/calculators/tuitionanalysis.pdf<= /SPAN>.=

^ ^=
a=20 ^=
b=20 ^=
c=20 ^=
d=20 Watts, GordonWayne (2011). "Higher-Ed Tuition Costs: The = =E2=80=98Conservative=E2=80=99 view is not on=20 either extreme". ThirstForJustice.net. http://thirstforjustice.net/Higher-Ed-Tuition-Costs.html.

^=20 "Affordable Higher=20 Education: Student Debt". U.S. PIRG. 2011. = http://www.uspirg.org/higher-education.<= SPAN=20 class=3DZ3988=20 = title=3Dctx_ver=3DZ39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=3Dinfo%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3A= mtx%3Abook&rft.genre=3Dbookitem&rft.btitle=3DAffordable+Higher+Ed= ucation%3A+Student+Debt&rft.atitle=3D&rft.date=3D2011&rft.pub= =3DU.S.+PIRG&rft_id=3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspirg.org%2Fhigher-education&= amp;rfr_id=3Dinfo:sid/en.wikipedia.org:College_tuition_in_the_United_Stat= es>

^=20 "Fight=20 to Protect Students and Taxpayers Moves to Senate! - House Voted to = Slash Pell=20 Grants and Block Gainful Employment Rule". = ProjectOnStudentDebt.org.=20 2011. http://projectonstudentdebt.org/update_3711.vp.html.

^=20 Applebaum, Robert (2009). "The=20 Proposal". ForgiveStudentLoanDebt.com. http://forgivestudentloandebt.com/content/proposal.

^=20 "Real Loan Forgiveness". ProjectOnStudentDebt.org. = 2011. http://projectonstudentdebt.org/initiative_view.php?initia= tive_idx=3D8.

^=20 "Take=20 Action for Real Loan Forgiveness!". ProjectOnStudentDebt.org. = 2009. http://projectonstudentdebt.org/update_61909.vp.html.

^=20 Collinge, Alan (2011). "Private=20 Student Loan Bankruptcy Bill... The 4th Attempt".=20 StudentLoanJustice.org. http://studentloanjustice.org/action-room.htm.<= /SPAN>

^=20 "Bankruptcy Relief for Private Student Loan Borrowers=20 Advances". ProjectOnStudentDebt.org. 2010. = http://projectonstudentdebt.org/update_91610.vp.html.

^=20 "Affordable Higher=20 Education: Cutting Lender Subsidies". U.S. PIRG. 2011. http://www.uspirg.org/higher-education.<= SPAN=20 class=3DZ3988=20 = title=3Dctx_ver=3DZ39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=3Dinfo%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3A= mtx%3Abook&rft.genre=3Dbookitem&rft.btitle=3DAffordable+Higher+Ed= ucation%3A+Cutting+Lender+Subsidies&rft.atitle=3D&rft.date=3D2011= &rft.pub=3DU.S.+PIRG&rft_id=3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspirg.org%2Fhighe= r-education&rfr_id=3Dinfo:sid/en.wikipedia.org:College_tuition_in_the= _United_States>

^=20 "Commission: Private Loans are Not the Solution!".=20 ProjectOnStudentDebt.org. 2006. http://projectonstudentdebt.org/update_8706.vp.html.

^=20 "Commission Calls for "Reduced Debt Burden" -- Time for = Education=20 Department to Act". ProjectOnStudentDebt.org. 2006.=20 http://projectonstudentdebt.org/update_81806.vp.html.

^=20 "Top 10 Job Placement Colleges: INFORMATION AND TIPS ON = INTERNSHIPS AND PAID INTERNSHIP". CollegeTips.com. 2011. http://www.collegetips.com/college-money/college-job-place= ment.php.

^=20 "Bureau of Labor = Statistics, U.S.=20 Dept. of Labor". Consumer Price Index. http://www.bls.gov/cpi/.

^=20 Powell, James (2006). "Bank=20 of Canada". A History of the Canadian Dollar. http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/dollar_book/index.html.

^=20 To show a wide range of tuitions, the chart's vertical axis is = logarithmic.=20 The span between two horizontal lines is a factor of ten.

^=20 "Canadian Association of University Teachers". = Education=20 Review 4(1), Sept, 2002, p. 2, Table 1. http://www.gpoaccess.gov/stylemanual/2000/chapter_txt-15.h= tml.

^=20 "University of Iowa". Fact Sheet, 2005. http://www.library.uni.edu/speccoll/unifacts.html.

^=20 For background on the emergence of MIT and other U.S. research = universities,=20 see Geiger, Roger L. (1986). To = Advance=20 Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, = 1900-1940. Oxford=20 University Press.

^=20 "MIT Undergraduate = Association".=20 The Tech, 1994-2006. http://tech.mit.edu/.

^=20 "MIT = Undergraduate=20 Association". The Tech, Archives, 1881-2009.=20 http://tech.mit.edu/browse.html.

^=20 Resident tuition rates are charted for public institutions; fees are = averaged;=20 nonresident rates are typically higher.

^=20 Note the qualitatively similar patterns in inflation-adjusted tuitions = for=20 three periods: 1940-1950, 1950-1980 and 1980-2000.

^=20 After 1960, these patterns show gradually widening ratios of = private-school to=20 public-school tuition, but some public systems saw tuition increases = similar=20 to those of the 1950s in Iowa during different decades.

^=20 "National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Dept. = of=20 Education". Average institutional charges for tuition and = required=20 fees. http://nces.ed.gov/quicktables/result.asp?SrchKeyword=3Din= stitutional+charges+for+tuition&topic=3DAll.

^=20 Data sources listed in Uebersax, John = (2009-07-15).=20 "College Tuition: Inflation or = Hyperinflation?". http://satyagraha.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/college-tuition= -hyperinflation/. Retrieved = 2009-07-15.

^=20 Ehrenberg, Ronald G. (2002). Tuition = Rising:=20 Why College Costs So Much. Harvard University Press.

^=20 Kane, Thomas J. (1999). The Price of = Admission:=20 Rethinking How Americans Pay for College. Brookings Institution=20 Press.

^=20 Bowen, William G., Tobin, Eugene M., = Kurzweil,=20 Martin A., and Pichler, Susanne C. (2005). Equity And Excellence In = American Higher Education. University of Virginia = Press.

^=20 "Higher Ed NewsWeekly (p.57)". Illinois Board of = Higher=20 Education. 2007. http://www.ibhe.state.il.us/NewsDigest/NewsWeekly/092807.p= df.

^=20 "Student Loan Debt Drives Man to Suicide". = Newsalert, citing=20 The Chicago Sun-Times. 2007. http://nalert.blogspot.com/2007/09/student-loan-debt-drive= s-man-to-suicide.html.

^=20 Lewis, Libby (2007). "A Pastor's Student Loan Debt". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=3D119= 80696.

^=20 Collinge, Alan (2007). "Company=E2=80=99s march toward student loan monopoly = scary".=20 TheNewsTribune.com. http://www.thenewstribune.com/2007/06/19/90638/companys-ma= rch-toward-student.html.

^=20 http://www.finaid.org/loans/

^=20 http://education-portal.com/articles/How_Much_More_Do_Coll= ege_Graduates_Earn_Than_Non-College_Graduates.html

^=20 http://www.usnews.com/articles/education/worlds-best-unive= rsities/2010/09/21/worlds-best-universities-top-400-.html

External = links

"College, Inc.", PBS FRONTLIN= E=20 documentary, May 4, 2010

U.S. Dept.=20 of Education

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College tuition in the United = States

Contents

Causes

Bubble = Theory

Cost = shifting and=20 Privatization

Student Loan

Lack of = consumer=20 protection

Additional = factors

Recommendations

Historical = trends

Recent = trends

Disproportional inflation of college = costs

Economic = and social=20 concerns

Economic = concerns

Social = concerns

Student loan = debt

See also

References and=20 notes

External = links

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